(趣闻转摘)世界上有多少国家把中国称为“中央之国”

(from 东方文化西方语 by 翟华)

“中国”这个国名很有内涵——“中央之国”,不过世界上大多数国家在称呼中国时都不使用这层意思。比如在英语中称中国为China,与“瓷器”是同音字;法语为Chine;意大利语为Cina;北欧诸国为Kina;俄语为Kitay;阿拉伯语为as-sīn;波斯语为Chin;印地语为cīn等。

但是,把“中国”按其内涵称为“中央之国”的国家也不是没有。日本人使用汉字,日语的中国就是“中国”,与中国简体字完全一样,发音为ちゅうごく(chūgoku)。韩国把中国称为중국,写出汉字是“中國”,发音为jungguk(或Chungguk)。越南已经废弃汉字,但从发音“Trung Quốc”可以看出这就是“中国”。蒙古语分外蒙、内蒙,国内蒙古语可用意译“中央之国”表示中国(dumdadu ulus,dumdadu=middle, ulus=country),而外蒙语则用“Khyatad”表示中国,与俄文同源(拼法稍有不同)。在马来/印尼语中,因为当地华人不喜欢Cina的说法(令人想起日本人蔑视中国人所说的“支那”), 所以把“中国”说成Tiongkok,这是借用了闽南语“中国”的发音。

所以,在世界上把中国称为“中央之国”的国家屈指可数,而且都是周边深受汉文化圈影响的国家。他们之所以把中国称为“中国”是因为中国人自己把自己叫“中国”,直接借用了汉字的发音和写法。但是,中国历史上各个朝代并不把“中国”作为国名使用,而是使用自己独特的名称,如唐、宋、元、明、清等,直到1912年中华民国成立,才将“中国”作为“中华民国”的简称正式使用,使其首次成为具有近代国家概念的正式名称(其英文标准译名为Republic of China),并被汉文化圈内地邻国所逐步接受。这样说来,“中央之国”作为国名还是个新名词,即便在汉文化圈国家,把中国称为“中国”也是近代以后的事。

以日本为例,日本本土上有一个叫“中国地方”,位于日本本州的西部,北面日本海,南临濑户内海。平安时代(公元794-1192)时,日本以当时的首都京都为中心,根据距离远近将国土命名为“近国”、“中国”、“远国”3个地区。所以这个“中国”其实就是当时的“中部地区”的意思,这一名称一直沿用至今。可以说,当日本有了“中国”这个地名的时候,中国的正式国名还不叫“中国”。从古时起一直到18世纪之前,日本人都把中国称为Morokoshi(モコロシ),Kara(カラ)或者Tau(タウ),都是日本人对汉字“唐”字的读音。在18世纪之前,日本地图一般将中国国土标为“汉土”。1713年,日本集武士、政治家、学者几种身份于一身的新井白石,与被日本拘禁的罗马传教士Giovanni Battista Sidotti对谈,编纂了《采览异言》一书。在写到中国这一段时,新井把从Sidotti那里听来的Cina(Sidotti是意大利人,所以我推测他说到“中国”应该说的是意大利语Cina,而不是英语China)用假名拼写为チイナ,并辅以“支那”二字为汉字译音,没有贬义。直到甲午战争中国人落败,作为胜利者日本人不再使用“唐”称呼中国,代之以“支那”,口气上已经带有了明显的贬义,所以引起中国人的愤懑。1911年孙中山领导辛亥革命成功推翻了大清国,改国号为“中华民国”,自此中国正式的国号简称“中国”。但是一些日本人却认为“中国”二字带有世界中心的优越感,加之日本已经有“中国地方”,所以依然常常使用“支那”来称呼中国,引发中国方面的极大不满。晚清秀才、教育家王拱璧在1919年出版的《东游挥汗录》就谴责日本不称我国为“中华民国”,而称之为“支那共和国”,是“不以国家视我”,“是我中华民国成立八年而倭人尚不承认也”。1930年,当时的中华民国中央政治会议通过一项决议,认为“‘支那’一词意义极不明显,与现在之中国毫无关系”,要求外交部从速通知日本政府,“今后称呼中国,英文需写National Republic of China,中文须写大中华民国。倘若日本公文使用支那之类的文字,中国外交部可断然拒绝接受”。

不过,从地理上看,把中国称作“中央之国”的国家主要在东、南方向的邻国而已。而在西、北方向的国家里,中国另有别称。从北方的角度看,俄罗斯及东欧(斯拉夫语系)至今把中国称为Kitay,用汉语表达就是“契丹”;从西方的角度看,印度以及西欧(印欧语系)普遍把中国称为China(或Cina, Kina, Chin等),这其实就是“支那”。提起“契丹”特别是“支那”的渊源,那就说来话长,学界至今还在争论不休,暂且放下不表。

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(外一篇)

双语ZT:西方人去中国的“八项注意”
from 东方文化西方语 by 翟华
美国CNN网站7月17日转载《财富》杂志文章:Roadtrip to China: 8 rules for work and play,《青年参考》译文如下(英语原文附后):

大家都有这样的经历:每到一个新的国家,我们常常会在无意之中冒犯或伤害别人,轻则让双方感到尴尬,重则会让生意泡汤。西方人去中国,最大的麻烦就是对东方文化的不理解。下列8种情况西方人特别应该注意:

1.“我想”还是“我们想”
在西方,个人利益至高无上;而在中国,群体利益高于一切。于是,中国人表达自己的愿望常用“我们想”,而西方人习惯于说“我想”。

2.“我是为了你好!”
有一个典型的例子,能说明中国人的群体思维。一位中国汽车供应商未征求北美一名客户的意见,就擅自更换了产品。客户对此非常愤怒,而供应商却不明就里。在西方,凡涉及个人利益的决定,必须要经当事人同意,因为这是对个人权利和个人选择的尊重。而中国人习惯群体思维,上司、父母可以替下属或孩子做决定,而无需征求意见。因为上司和父母坚信,“我是为了你好!”他们是在为了群体的最大利益着想。

3.“你挣多少钱?”
西方人比中国人更注重个人隐私。学生向老师打听其他同学的成绩,同事间互相打听工资多少、婚姻状况等,这在中国是司空见惯的事情。到了中国,如果有人问任何私密问题,你一定不要感到惊讶。你若不愿意说,可以简单地一笑而过或改变话题。

4.听到最后,你才会听明白!
一位中国员工给外籍老板打电话请假时,一般他会这么说:“我儿子病了,今天不能上幼儿园。我想请个临时保姆,可找不到。我也问了岳父母,可他们身体不舒服。现在,我恐怕别无选择,只好待在家里照看孩子了。我请一天假好吗?”这就是中国人的特点:他们习惯于在谈话的最后表明观点,而西方人总把最重要的信息放在谈话的开头。所以,听中国人说话,你一定要有耐心。

5.感谢之时不说“谢谢”。
在西方,即使受到别人非常小的恩惠,也要表示感谢。而在中国,在关系比较亲密的时候(比如朋友和同事),如果对任何事情都说“谢谢”,那就会被看成是把自己主动疏离于群体之外。如果你听不到中国人对你说“谢谢”,一定不要介意或气恼。要知道,当中国人真的说“谢谢”时,那倒真的可能是一种疏远了。

6.“为什么我还需要证据?”
中国人的表述往往让人觉得模棱两可、模糊不清,因为他们不喜欢提供证据来证明自己。所以,中国人的学术文章往往缺少脚注;被控销售含铅玩具的供应商只会为自己喊冤,而不去提供对自己有利的证据。这一点,着实让西方人感到头疼。不过,当你要求中国同事为你提供证据(比如市场调查等)时,如果你看到的是一张毫无表情的脸,千万别感到意外。

7.不会拥抱。
当众表达情感在西方很普遍,可在中国却是禁忌??至少在成年人当中是如此,即使在亲密的朋友与家人之间也不例外。如果你听说有一个中国父亲从未拥抱或亲吻过他成年的孩子,不要大惊小怪。所以,把你热烈的拥抱和飞吻留到(美国)国内再用吧。

8.很少说“对不起”。
在中国,当有人插队和不小心撞到你时,你将很难听到“对不起”或“抱歉”。美国人,请保持冷静,这些事情在我们看来很粗鲁,可按中国人的标准则能被完全接受。原因就在于,中国的人口实在太多了,这里的人会想尽一切办法寻找任何可能的捷径,以更快获得方便。

在跨文化的交际中,要弄懂这些微妙的差异,当然不是一件简单之事。到了中国,就要去适应中国文化,套用中国的一句俗话,就是要“入乡随俗”。

Roadtrip to China: 8 rules for work and play
Understanding a few key cultural differences can smooth the way for a trip to China that is free of friction and faux pas.
By Anne Fisher, senior writer

Last Updated: July 17, 2008: 9:57 AM EDT
NEW YORK (Fortune) -- We've all been there: visiting a new country we inadvertently do or say something deemed offensive to locals. At best, we're embarrassed. At worst, we risk blowing a business deal or offending our hosts.
In China, cultural differences are taking center stage as more Americans head east for business and pleasure. So whether you're going for business or to catch next month's Olympics in Beijing - or both - here's an 8-point crash course in how your Chinese hosts work and play.
What do you mean, 'I want?' In the West, the individual is No. 1. In China, community trumps all. "In the West, what 'I' want matters greatly," explains Huping Iler, CEO of wintranslation.com, an Ontario-based provider of translation services in dozens of languages (including Mandarin) to clients like the United Nations, Intel (INTC, Fortune 500), and Caterpillar (CAT, Fortune 500). "In Chinese culture, what I want is not as important as what 'we' want."
I know what's best for you. Here's a prime example of group-think at work: A Chinese automotive supplier whom Iler knows changed a North American customer's product without asking permission. The customer was furious, but the supplier didn't get why. "'Not without my permission' is an important concept in Western cultures, because it shows respect for individual authority and individual choice," Iler notes. "But in China, it's much more common for supervisors and others to make decisions that affect others without consulting anyone else, because they believe they are acting in the best interests of the group." If you want to be consulted on key decisions, don't assume you will be. Speak up.
How much money do you make? Western cultures place a far higher premium on privacy than the Chinese do. In China, it's common for a student to ask teachers what grades other students received, or to ask a colleague how much he makes or if he's single and dating. "Don't be surprised if you are asked bluntly personal questions," says Iler. Reply honestly, if you want - or just smile and change the subject.
I'll get to the point, eventually. A Chinese employee asking for the day off will call you and say something like: "My son is sick and he can't go to day care today. I tried to find a babysitter, but everybody is booked. I even checked with my in-laws but they aren't feeling well themselves. So I'm afraid I have no choice but to stay home today. Is it all right if I take the day off?" The Chinese make their points at the end of a conversation, rather than the Western style of stating the important information first. Be patient.
Thanks, but no thanks..really. Expressing gratitude, even for small favors, is a must in the West. In China, says Iler, "if a relationship is close, such as between friends or colleagues, saying 'thank you' for everything is viewed as a way to distance oneself from the group." Don't be offended if you don't hear a 'thank you.' It might be a compliment.
Why do I need proof? The Chinese can be vague about their statements, which is why academic papers often lack footnotes and Chinese suppliers accused of selling lead-tainted toys simply argued that China shouldn't be held responsible - without offering proof. "For a Western person working with Chinese colleagues, the Chinese tendency to be vague can be frustrating." says Iler. You can ask for proof - say, market research - to substantiate a claim. But don't surprised if your request is met with a blank look.
I don't do hugs! Public displays of affection are common in the West, but they're taboo in China - at least among adults, even close friends. "Don't be surprised to hear that a Chinese father has never hugged or kissed his grown children," says Iler. Save the bear hugs and air kisses for Stateside.
Please, no more excuses. PDA may be off-limits, but the Chinese have no problem cutting in front of you or bumping into strangers without saying "excuse me." What may seem like the height of rudeness to us is, by Chinese standards, perfectly acceptable. "In such a highly crowded society, people use any available shortcut," explains Iler. So try to stay chill.
Of course, people from other cultures who do business with the West must learn all these subtleties in reverse, and it's not easy for anybody. But, Iler notes, if you're going to China, the onus is on you to adapt to Chinese ways, not vice versa. As they say, "When in Rome..."

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